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Religious motif in which a deity dies and is resurrected

Resurrection deity
FredericLeighton-TheReturnofPerspephone(1891).jpg

The Render of Persephone by Frederic Leighton (1891).
Clarification A dying-and-ascension god is built-in, suffers a expiry-similar experience, and is later reborn.
Proponents James Frazer, Carl Jung, Tryggve Mettinger
Subject Mythology
Organized religion

A dying-and-ascent, death-rebirth, or resurrection deity is a religious motif in which a god or goddess dies and is resurrected.[ane] [2] [3] [4] Examples of gods who die and later return to life are most oftentimes cited from the religions of the ancient Near East, and traditions influenced by them include Biblical and Greco-Roman mythology and by extension Christianity. The concept of a dying-and-ascent god was first proposed in comparative mythology by James Frazer's seminal The Gilt Bough (1890). Frazer associated the motif with fertility rites surrounding the yearly cycle of vegetation. Frazer cited the examples of Osiris, Tammuz, Adonis and Attis, Dionysus and Jesus.[5]

Frazer's interpretation of the category has been critically discussed in 20th-century scholarship,[half dozen] to the conclusion that many examples from the globe's mythologies included under "dying and rising" should only exist considered "dying" but not "rising", and that the genuine dying-and-rising god is a characteristic feature of ancient Near Eastern mythologies and the derived mystery cults of Tardily Artifact.[7] "Death or departure of the gods" is motif A192 in Stith Thompson's Motif-Index of Folk-Literature (1932), while "resurrection of gods" is motif A193.[8]

Overview [edit]

The motif of a dying deity appears within the mythology of diverse cultures – possibly because attributes of deities were derived from everyday experiences, and the ensuing conflicts often included death.[9] [10] [xi] These examples range from Baldr in Norse mythology to the feathered snake Quetzalcoatl in Aztec mythology to the Japanese Izanami.[10] [12] [13]

Odin whispering to a dead Baldr as he is to be sent out to sea

The methods of death vary, e.g., in the myth of Baldr (whose account was probable get-go written down in the twelfth century), he is inadvertently killed past his blind blood brother Höðr who is tricked into shooting a mistletoe-tipped arrow at him, and his body is so set aflame on a send every bit it sails out to ocean.[x] [12] Baldr does not come back to life considering not all living creatures shed tears for him, and his death then leads to the "doom of the gods".[10] [12]

In dissimilarity, in most variations of his story, Quetzalcoatl (whose business relationship was first written downwards in the 16th century) is tricked past Tezcatlipoca to over-drink so burns himself to expiry out of remorse for his ain shameful deeds.[x] [xiv] Quetzalcoatl does not resurrect and come up dorsum to life as himself, but some versions of his story have a flock of birds flight away from his ashes, and in some variants, Quetzalcoatl sails away on the body of water never to return.[10] [14]

Hawaiian deities tin can dice and depart the world in a number of ways; e.yard., some gods who were killed on Lanai by Lanikuala departed for the skies.[10] In contrast, Kaili leaves the world past a canoe which is never seen again.[x] The Japanese god Izanami, on the other hand, dies of a fever and Izanagi goes to Yomi, the land of gloom, to retrieve her, only she has already inverse to a deteriorated state and Izanagi volition non bring her back, and she pursues Izanagi, just he manages to escape.[10] [13]

Some gods who die are also seen as either returning or bringing about life in some other form, often associated with the vegetation wheel, or a staple food, in issue taking the class of a vegetation deity.[ten] [eleven] Examples include Ishtar and Persephone, who dice every year.[9] The yearly death of Ishtar when she goes hugger-mugger represents the lack of growth, while her render represents the rebirth of the farming bicycle.[9] Most scholars hold that although the gods suggested in this motif die, they practise non generally return in terms of rising as the same deity, although scholars such as Mettinger contend that in some cases they do.[10] [15]

Development of the concept [edit]

The term "dying god" is associated with the works of James Frazer,[four] Jane Ellen Harrison, and their fellow Cambridge Ritualists.[16] At the end of the 19th century, in their The Gilded Bough [iv] and Prolegomena to the Study of Greek Religion, Frazer and Harrison argued that all myths are echoes of rituals, and that all rituals take as their primordial purpose the manipulation of natural phenomena.[four]

The Osiris-bed, where he renews the harvest cycle in Egypt

Early on in the 20th century, Gerald Massey argued that there are similarities between the Egyptian dying-and-rising god myths and Jesus,[17] but Massey's factual errors oft render his works nonsensical. For instance, Massey stated that the biblical references to Herod the Great were based on the myth of "Herrut" the evil hydra snake. However, the beingness of Herod the Slap-up is well established independently of Christian sources.[18] Massey's scholarship has been widely rejected by mainstream academics, including, among many others, Christian Evangelical writers such as Stanley E. Porter.[nineteen]

The Swiss psychoanalyst Carl Jung argued that archetypal processes such as death and resurrection were part of the "trans-personal symbolism" of the collective unconscious, and could be utilized in the chore of psychological integration.[20] [ folio needed ] He also proposed that the myths of the infidel gods who symbolically died and resurrected foreshadowed Christ'due south literal/physical death and resurrection.[20] [ page needed ] The overall view of Jung regarding religious themes and stories is that they are expressions of events occurring in the unconscious of the individuals – regardless of their historicity.[21] From the symbolic perspective, Jung sees dying and rising gods as an archetypal process resonating with the commonage unconscious through which the rising god becomes the greater personality in the Jungian cocky.[9] In Jung's view, a biblical story such as the resurrection of Jesus (which he saw as a case of dying and ascent) may be truthful or not, but that has no relevance to the psychological analysis of the process, and its touch on.[21]

The analysis of Osiris permeates the later on religious psychology of Carl Jung more than any other chemical element.[22] In 1950 Jung wrote that those who partake in the Osiris myth festival and follow the ritual of his expiry and the scattering of his body to restart the vegetation bicycle as a rebirth "feel the permanence and continuity of life which outlasts all changes of course".[23] Jung wrote that Osiris provided the fundamental example of the rebirth procedure in that initially only the Pharaohs "had an Osiris" but later other Egyptians nobles acquired it and eventually it led in the concept of soul for all individuals in Christianity.[24] Jung believed that Christianity itself derived its significance from the archetypal relationship between Osiris and Horus versus God the Male parent and Jesus, his son.[22] Withal, Jung also postulated that the rebirth applied to Osiris (the father), and not Horus, the son.[22]

The general applicability of the death and resurrection of Osiris to the dying-and-rising-god illustration has been criticized, on the grounds that information technology derived from the harvesting rituals that related the ascent and receding waters of the Nile river and the farming cycle.[nineteen] [25] [26] The cutting downward of barley and wheat was related to the death of Osiris, while the sprouting of shoots was thought to exist based on the power of Osiris to resurrect the farmland.[xix] [25] [27] In general rebirth analogies based on the vegetation bike are viewed every bit the weakest elements in the decease-rebirth analogies.[ix]

In Greek mythology, Dionysus, the son of Zeus, was a horned child who was torn to pieces past Titans who lured him with toys, and then boiled and ate him.[28] [29] Zeus then destroyed the Titans by thunderbolt as a result of their activity against Dionysus and from the ashes humans were formed.[29] However, Dionysus' grandmother Rhea managed to put some of his pieces back together (principally from his center that was spared) and brought him back to life.[28] [29] Scholars such as Barry Powell have suggested Dionysus as an example of resurrection.[30]

The oldest known instance of the "dying god rising myth" is the Sumerian myth of Inanna'southward Descent to the Underworld . The Sumerian goddess Inanna travels to the Underworld to run into her sis Ereshkigal. While there, she is "struck down" and turns into a corpse. For three days and iii nights, Inanna is dead, until she is resurrected with the assist of her father, Enki, who sends the two galla to bring her back. The galla serve Inanna food and water and bring her back to life. [31]

Scholarly criticism [edit]

The category "dying-and-rise-god" was debated throughout the 20th century, nigh modern scholars questioning its ubiquity in the world's mythologies.[10] By the end of the 20th century the overall scholarly consensus had emerged against the category, given its limited applicability exterior of ancient Virtually Eastern religions and derived traditions.[10] Kurt Rudolph in 1986 argued that the oft-fabricated connectedness between the mystery religions and the idea of dying and rising divinities is defective. Gerald O'Collins states that surface-level application of coordinating symbolism is a instance of parallelomania which exaggerates the importance of trifling resemblances, long abased by mainstream scholars.[32] Confronting this view, Mettinger (2001) affirms that many of the gods of the mystery religions do indeed die, descend to the underworld, are lamented and retrieved by a woman and restored to life. However, Mettinger too disincludes Christianity from this influence.[vii]

While the concept of a "dying-and-ascent god" has a longer history, information technology was significantly advocated by Frazer'south Golden Bender (1906–1914). At get-go received very favourably, the idea was attacked by Roland de Vaux in 1933, and was the subject area of controversial contend over the following decades.[33] One of the leading scholars in the deconstruction of Frazer's "dying-and-rising god" category was Jonathan Z. Smith, whose 1969 dissertation discusses Frazer's Gold Bough,[34] and who in Mircea Eliade's 1987 Encyclopedia of faith wrote the "Dying and rising gods" entry, where he dismisses the category as "largely a misnomer based on imaginative reconstructions and exceedingly belatedly or highly ambiguous texts", suggesting a more than detailed categorisation into "dying gods" and "disappearing gods", arguing that before Christianity, the two categories were distinct and gods who "died" did not render, and those who returned never truly "died".[35] [36] Smith gave a more detailed business relationship of his views specifically on the question of parallels to Christianity in Drudgery Divine (1990).[37] Smith's 1987 article was widely received, and during the 1990s, scholarly consensus seemed to shift towards his rejection of the concept as oversimplified, although it continued to be invoked by scholars writing about ancient Near Eastern mythology.[38] Since the 1990s, Smith's scholarly rejection of the category has been widely embraced past Christian apologists wishing to defend the historicity of Jesus, while scholarly defenses of the concept (or its applicability to mystery religion) have been embraced by the new atheism move wishing to contend the Christ myth theory.[39]

Showtime with an overview of the Athenian ritual of growing and withering herb gardens at the Adonis festival, in his book The Gardens of Adonis Marcel Detienne suggests that rather than being a stand up-in for crops in full general (and therefore the bike of death and rebirth), these herbs (and Adonis) were part of a complex of associations in the Greek mind that centered on spices.[40] These associations included seduction, trickery, gourmandizing, and the anxieties of childbirth.[41] From his point of view, Adonis's expiry is only 1 datum among the many that must exist used to analyze the festival, the myth, and the god.[41] [42]

A main criticism charges the group of analogies with reductionism, insofar equally it subsumes a range of disparate myths nether a single category and ignores important distinctions. Detienne argues that it risks making Christianity the standard by which all religion is judged, since death and resurrection are more than primal to Christianity than many other faiths.[43] Dag Øistein Endsjø, a scholar of faith, points out how a number of those frequently defined as dying-and-rising-deities, such every bit a number of figures in ancient Greek religion, really died as ordinary mortals, only to get gods of various stature afterward they were resurrected from the dead. Not dying every bit gods, they thus defy the definition of "dying-and-ascension-gods".[44]

Tryggve Mettinger, who supports the category of dying and rising gods, stated in 2001 that there was a scholarly consensus that the category is inappropriate from a historical perspective.[15] Every bit of 2009, the Encyclopedia of Psychology and Faith summarizes the current scholarly consensus every bit ambiguous, with some scholars rejecting Frazer'southward "broad universalist category" preferring to emphasize the differences between the various traditions, while others keep to view the category as applicable.[9]

In the 2010s, Paola Corrente conducted an extensive survey of the status of the dying and ascent god category. While she agrees that much of Frazer's specific prove was faulty, she argues that the category as a whole is valid, though she suggests modifications to the specific criteria. Corrente specifically focuses her attention on several Near Eastern and Mesopotamian gods equally examples which she argues have been largely ignored, both by Frazer (who would not have had admission to most relevant texts) and his more recent critics. These examples include the goddess Inanna in Sumerian texts and Ba'al in Ugaritic texts, whose myths, Corrente argues, offer concrete examples of death and resurrection. Corrente also utilizes the example of Dionysus, whose connectedness to the category is more complicated, but have still been largely ignored or mischaracterized past other scholars including Frazer himself in her view.[45] [46]

See besides [edit]

  • Comparative mythology
  • Dumuzid
  • Mother goddess
  • Mytheme
  • Ouroboros
  • Pandeism
  • Resurrection
  • Psychology of organized religion
  • Vegetation deity
  • Virtually-death experience

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ Leeming, "Dying god" (2004)
  2. ^ Burkert 1979, 99
  3. ^ Stookey 2004, 99
  4. ^ a b c d Miles 2009, 193
  5. ^ Frazer, quoted in Mettinger 2001:18, cited later Garry and El-Shamy, p. nineteen
  6. ^ summary in Mettinger (2001:fifteen–39)
  7. ^ a b Garry and El-Shamy (2004:19f.), citing Mettinger (2001:217f.): "The world of ancient Near Eastern religions actually knew a number of deities that may be properly described every bit dying and rising [... although o]ne should not hypostasize these gods into a specific type ' the dying and rising god.'"
  8. ^ Thompson'south categories A192. Expiry or deviation of the gods and A193. Resurrection of gods. S. Thompson, Motif-index of folk-literature : a nomenclature of narrative elements in folktales, ballads, myths, fables, medieval romances, exempla, fabliaux, jest-books, and local legends, Revised and enlarged. edition. Bloomington : Indiana University Press, 1955-1958, p. 106.
  9. ^ a b c d e f Lee W. Bailey, "Dying and ascent gods" in: David A. Leeming, Kathryn Madden and Stanton Marlan (eds.) Encyclopedia of Psychology and Religion (2009) ISBN 038771801X Springer, pages 266–267
  10. ^ a b c d eastward f g h i j k l grand Garry, Jane; K El-Shamy, Hasan (December 1, 2004). Archetypes and Motifs in Folklore and Literature; a handbook . pp. nineteen–xx. ISBN0765612607.
  11. ^ a b Thematic Guide to World Mythology by Lorena Laura Stookey (March 30, 2004) ISBN 0313315051 pages 106-107
  12. ^ a b c Norse Mythology: A Guide to Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs by John Lindow (October 17, 2002) ISBN 0195153820 pages 66-68
  13. ^ a b Handbook of Japanese Mythology by Michael Ashkenazi (November five, 2003) ISBN 1576074676 page 174
  14. ^ a b The Myth of Quetzalcoatl by Enrique Florescano and Lysa Hochroth (October 29, 2002) ISBN 0801871018 page 42
  15. ^ a b Mettinger, Tryggve N. D. (2001). The Riddle of Resurrection: Dying and Ascent Gods in the Aboriginal Virtually East. Almqvist & Wiksell, pages 7 and 221
  16. ^ Ackerman 2002, 163, lists divine kingship, taboo, and the dying god equally "central concepts" of not only Frazer, but Harrison and others of the ritualist school, in dissimilarity to differences among these scholars.
  17. ^ Massey, Gerald (1907). Ancient Arab republic of egypt, the light of the world. London: T. Fisher Unwin. pp. 728–914. ISBN978-1-4588-1251-3.
  18. ^ Unmasking the Pagan Christ by Stanley East. Porter and Stephen J. Bedard 2006 ISBN 1894667719 page 18
  19. ^ a b c Unmasking the Infidel Christ by Stanley E. Porter and Stephen J. Bedard 2006 ISBN 1894667719 page 24
  20. ^ a b Crowley, Vivianne (2000). Jung: A Journeying of Transformation:Exploring His Life and Experiencing His Ideas. Wheaton Illinois: Quest Books. ISBN978-0-8356-0782-seven.
  21. ^ a b Care for the Soul: Exploring the Intersection of Psychology and Theology by Mark R. McMinn and Timothy R. Phillips (April 25, 2001) ISBN 0830815538 Intervarsity folio 287
  22. ^ a b c Alane Sauder-MacGuire, "Osiris and the Egyptian Organized religion" in the Encyclopedia of Psychology and Faith past David A. Leeming, Kathryn Madden and Stanton Marlan (November half-dozen, 2009) ISBN 038771801X Springer, pages 651-653
  23. ^ The Archetypes and The Collective Unconscious (Collected Works of C. M. Jung Vol. 9 Part 1) by C. Chiliad. Jung and R. F. C. Hull (August 1, 1981) ISBN 0691018332 page 117
  24. ^ The Archetypes and The Collective Unconscious (Collected Works of C. Chiliad. Jung Vol. ix Role i) past C. Chiliad. Jung and R. F. C. Hull (August 1, 1981) ISBN 0691018332 page 128
  25. ^ a b Egyptian Mythology, a Guide to the Gods, Goddesses, and Traditions of Ancient Egypt by Geraldine Pinch 2004 ISBN 0195170245 Oxford University Printing page 91
  26. ^ New Testament tools and studies, Bruce Manning Metzger, p. xix, Brill Annal, 1960
  27. ^ Encyclopedia of Ancient Arab republic of egypt by Margaret Bunson 1999 ISBN 0517203804 page 290
  28. ^ a b Euripides and Alcestis past Kiki Gounaridou (September iii, 1998) University Press of America ISBN 0761812318 page 71
  29. ^ a b c The Greek Earth by Anton Powell (September 28, 1997) ISBN 0415170427 page 494
  30. ^ A Short Introduction to Classical Myth by Barry B. Powell (January 2002) ISBN 0130258393 pages 105–107
  31. ^ Mark, Joshua J. (February 23, 2011). "Inanna'due south Descent: A Sumerian Tale of Injustice". Retrieved January 21, 2022. CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  32. ^ Gerald O'Collins, "The Subconscious Story of Jesus" New Blackfriars Volume 89, Issue 1024, pages 710–714, November 2008
  33. ^ Tryggve Mettinger, "The 'Dying and Rising God': A survey of Inquiry from Frazer to the Present Day", in Batto et al. (eds.), David and Zion: Biblical Studies in Honor of J. J. Thousand. Roberts (2004), 373–386
  34. ^ Zittell Smith, Jonathan (1969). The Glory, Jest and Riddle. James George Frazer and The Golden Bough (PDF). Yale dissertation.
  35. ^ Smith, Jonathan Z. (1987). "Dying and Rising Gods", in The Encyclopedia of Religion Vol. IV, edited past Mircea Eliade ISBN 0029097002 Macmillan, pages 521–527
  36. ^ Gale, Thomson. "Dying and Rising Gods". Home Search Enquiry categories. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 10 October 2016.
  37. ^ Jonathan Z. Smith "On Comparing Stories", Drudgery Divine: On the Comparison of Early Christianities and the Religions of Late Antiquity (1990), 85–115.
  38. ^ Mettinger (2004) cites M. Southward. Smith, The Ugaritic Baal Cycle and H.-P. Müller, "Sterbende ud auferstehende Vegetationsgötter? Eine Skizze", TZ 53 (1997:374)
  39. ^ Albert McIlhenny, This Is the Dominicus?: Zeitgeist and Religion, Labarum Publishing (2011), chapter 14, "Dying and Rising Gods", 189–213.
  40. ^ The Gardens of Adonis by Marcel Detienne, Janet Lloyd and Jean-Pierre Vernant (April iv, 1994) ISBN 0691001049 Princeton pages 4–eleven
  41. ^ a b David and Zion, Biblical Studies in Honor of J. J. M. Roberts, edited by Bernard Frank Batto, Kathryn L. Roberts and J. J. M. Roberts (July 2004) ISBN 1575060922 pages 381–383
  42. ^ Comparative Criticism Volume ane by Elinor Shaffer (November i, 1979) ISBN 0521222966 folio 301
  43. ^ Detienne 1994; see besides Burkert 1987
  44. ^ Dag Øistein Endsjø. Greek Resurrection Beliefs and the Success of Christianity. New York: Palgrave Macmillan 2009.
  45. ^ Corrente, Paola. 2012. "Dioniso y los Dying gods: paralelos metodológicos". PhD thesis, Universidad Complutense de Madrid.
  46. ^ Corrente, Paola and Sidney Castillo. 2019. "Philology and the Comparative Written report of Myths", The Religious Studies Projection (Podcast Transcript). iii June 2019. Transcribed by Helen Bradstock. Version i.one, 28 May 2019.

References [edit]

  • Ackerman, Robert (2002). The Myth and Ritual School: J.G. Frazer and the Cambridge Ritualists. New York: Routledge.
  • Burkert, Walter
    • Construction and History in Greek Mythology and Ritual . London: Academy of California Press. 1979.
    • Ancient Mystery Cults. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Upward. 1987. ISBN0-674-03386-8.
  • Cumont, Franz (1911). The Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism. Chicago: Open up Court.
  • Cumont, Franz (1903). The Mysteries of Mithra. London: Kegan Paul.
  • Detienne, Marcel (1994). The Gardens of Adonis: Spices in Greek Mythology . Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Up. ISBN0-391-00611-viii.
  • Endsjø, Dag Øistein 2009. Greek Resurrection Beliefs and the Success of Christianity. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-230-61729-2
  • Frazer, James George (1890). The Golden Bough. New York: Touchstone, 1996.. ISBN 0-684-82630-five
  • Gaster, Theodor, H. 1950. Thespis: Ritual, Myth, and Drama in the Aboriginal Near Due east. New York: Henry Schuman. ISBN 0-87752-188-3
  • Godwin, Joscelyn. 1994. The Theosophical Enlightenment. Albany: Land U of New York P. ISBN 0-7914-2151-1
  • Jensen, Adolf (1963). Myth and Cult amid Primitive Peoples. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-39823-4
  • Leeming, David. "Dying god". The Oxford Companion to World mythology. Oxford University Press, 2004. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. UC - Irvine. 5 June 2011 <http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Chief&entry=t208.e469>
  • Lewis, C. S. (1970). "Myth Become Fact." God in the Dock: Essays on Theology and Ideals. Ed. Walter Hooper. Reprint ed. Grand Rapids, Mich.: William B. Eerdmans, 1994. ISBN 0-8028-0868-9
  • Mettinger, Tryggve N. D. (2001). The Riddle of Resurrection: Dying and Rise Gods in the Ancient Well-nigh East. Coniectanea Biblica, Old Testament, 50, Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell, ISBN 978-91-22-01945-9
  • Miles, Geoffrey. 2009. Classical Mythology in English language Literature: A Critical Anthology. Taylor & Francis e-Library.
  • Nash, Ronald H. 2003. The Gospel and the Greeks: Did the New Testament Borrow from Pagan Thought?. Phillipsburg, N.J.: P&R. ISBN 0-87552-559-8
  • Smith, Jonathan Z. (1987). "Dying and Rise Gods." In The Encyclopedia of Organized religion: Vol. iii.. Ed. Mircea Eliade. New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan.
  • Stookey, Lorena Laura. 2004. Thematic Guide to World Mythology. Westport: Greenwood.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dying-and-rising_deity

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